Preface
Military-and-civilian infrared technology has evolved from its military use into commercial applications. It is expected that quantum sensors and integrated photonics will see notable growth.
The evolution of military-and-civilian infrared technology can be traced back to defence applications, originating from a shift in military research thinking that began to recognise the potential for civilian use. The US Office of Technology Assessment (OTA) noted that during the Cold War, the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) established military-and-civilian technology as a cornerstone of defense R&D. In 1993, ARPA launched the Technology Reinvestment Project to initiate formal dual-use development of industry and academia, fundamentally reshaping how infrared technologies were conceived and engineered.
Early infrared applications focused on military objectives, particularly night-vision and surveillance systems. As the technology matured, researchers identified its significant commercial potential. During the Second World War, German experiments with infrared searchlights and vision devices demonstrated the tactical advantages of thermal imaging, although most early systems were unsuccessful. The true breakthrough came with the development of the AIM-9 Sidewinder missile—its infrared-guided, fire-and-forget capability marked a decisive turning point in military infrared applications.
Current Situation and Applications
Modern military-and-civilian infrared technology span a wide range—from advanced sensing systems to multi-wavelength quantum cascade lasers (QCLs). According to the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers (SPIE), contemporary infrared systems include short-wave infrared (SWIR, 1–3 μm), mid-wave infrared (MWIR, 3–5 μm), long-wave infrared (LWIR, 8–14 μm) and very-long-wave infrared (VLWIR) technologies.
The automotive sector stands as a exemplary role of commercial dual-use implementation. Infrared night-vision systems have been adopted in premium vehicles. Optics reported that the 2000 Cadillac DeVille introduced a driver night-vision system, generating unprecedented market demand—marking the first instance in which the commercialisation of infrared technology was driven by market pull, rather than traditional market push.
Quantum cascade lasers represent a major advance in military-and-civilian infrared technology. Operating at wavelengths from 3.7 to 16 μm at room temperature, they support chemical sensing for toxic substances, warfare agents, and explosives detection. Their mid-infrared free-space communication capability leverages atmospheric transmission windows, making QCLs well suited for commercial communications and military operations under adverse weather conditions.
Modern integrated photonics platforms use materials such as silicon, silicon nitride, germanium, and chalcogenide glasses to realise compact, chip-scale infrared circuits. These platforms enable the development of photonic crystal cavities, microring resonators and Mach–Zehnder interferometers optimised for enhanced detection of trace gases and contaminants. Such integration marks a shift towards scalable, cost-effective infrared systems capable of addressing both defence and civilian needs.
Export Controls and Regulation
The military-and-civilian nature of infrared technologies necessitates comprehensive regulatory oversight. The US Bureau of Industry and Security maintain detailed export controls on Category 6 infrared detection items in the Commerce Control List. These regulations encompass optical sensors, focal-plane arrays and image-intensifier tubes, underscoring the strategic significance of infrared technology.
Recent regulatory updates have expanded controls on infrared detection items, introduced global “regional stability” restrictions, and removed license exceptions for several infrared technologies. The Wassenaar Arrangement’s List of Dual-Use Goods and Technologies provides a multilateral framework for controlling the export of dual-use infrared systems.
The complexity of regulation stems from the inherent challenge of distinguishing military uses from civilian uses. Export controls must balance legitimate commercial interests with national-security concerns, particularly as the boundary between military and civilian technologies becomes increasingly blurred. Dual-use classification frameworks acknowledge that most modern infrared technologies are dual-use at a fundamental level, requiring nuanced regulation.
Emerging Technologies and Integration Trends
Current research focuses on ultra-low-loss silicon-nitride integrated photonic circuits, which could transform portable infrared applications. According to the National Center for Biotechnology Information, these circuits demonstrate the potential to reduce size, weight and cost while improving reliability across visible-to-infrared applications, including quantum computing, atomic clocks and atom-based navigation systems.
Mid-infrared photonic sensors operating across the 2–20 μm range represent another significant advance. These sensors exploit the “molecular fingerprint region” for precise chemical identification, enabling applications in environmental monitoring, biomedical diagnostics and breath-analysis-based disease detection. Their ability to provide real-time, non-invasive analysis makes them invaluable for medical diagnostics and security screening.
Frequency-comb technologies based on quantum cascade lasers have emerged as game-changing dual-use tools in military-and-civilian sectors. Supporting dual-comb spectroscopy configurations, these devices can detect multiple molecular species simultaneously. Their chip-scale implementation offers a compact alternative to bulky conventional spectrometers, bringing advanced spectroscopic capabilities to research and field applications.
Future Technological Frontiers
The future of military-and-civilian infrared technology will be shaped by multiple trends.
Integrated nonlinear photonics for LWIR wavelengths is a key frontier, enabling applications in chemical identification, environmental sensing, surveillance and night-vision. Platforms based on chalcogenide glass, single-crystal diamond and III–V compounds are being developed into mature, low-loss LWIR chip-scale systems.
Technological convergence is expected to produce cross-sector network effects: advances in infrared technology will accelerate developments in artificial intelligence, biotechnology and quantum technologies. This connectivity means breakthroughs in infrared technology may have far-reaching impacts across multiple domains.
Space-based applications represent another growth area. Infrared imaging systems for Earth observation, greenhouse-gas monitoring and hyperspectral sensing will benefit from miniaturized integrated-photonics systems. The European Association of Space Research organisations notes that high-altitude platform stations and small-satellite constellations require higher-performance infrared sensors to deliver continuous surveillance and environmental monitoring.
Advances in manufacturing technologies result in higher operating temperatures for mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) detectors, with systems reaching approximately 235 K in the SWIR band, 170 K in the MWIR band, 110 K in the LWIR band and 70 K in the VLWIR range. According to SPIE, these improvements will reduce cooling requirements and allow for more compact and energy-efficient systems suitable for both military and commercial deployment.
The dual-use nature of infrared technology continues to challenge policymakers and industry stakeholders. Maintaining a clear distinction between military and civilian applications is increasingly difficult, requiring sophisticated regulatory frameworks that can accommodate rapidly evolving capabilities. The emergence of asymmetric warfare and new homeland-security requirements further complicates traditional dual-use delineations.
International competitiveness remains a critical concern, with many nations investing heavily in the development of infrared technologies. Sustaining technological leadership requires continued investment in research and development, alongside export controls that encourage innovation while protecting national security and interests.
The future success of military-and-civilian infrared interests depends on continued collaboration between defense and commercial sectors, effective regulatory frameworks that balance security and innovation, and strategic investment in emerging technologies that may define the next generation of infrared capabilities.
Source: Optoelectronic online
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